Reliability of self reported smoking status by pregnant women for estimating smoking prevalence: a retrospective, cross sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine what impact reliance on self reported smoking status during pregnancy has on both the accuracy of smoking prevalence figures and access to smoking cessation services for pregnant women in Scotland. DESIGN: Retrospective, cross sectional study of cotinine measurements in stored blood samples. PARTICIPANTS: Random sample (n=3475) of the 21 029 pregnant women in the West of Scotland who opted for second trimester prenatal screening over a one year period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Smoking status validated with cotinine measurement by maternal area deprivation category (Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation). RESULTS: Reliance on self reported smoking status underestimated true smoking by 25% (1046/3475 (30%) from cotinine measurement v 839/3475 (24%) from self reporting, z score 8.27, P<0.001). Projected figures suggest that in Scotland more than 2400 pregnant smokers go undetected each year. A greater proportion of smokers in the least deprived areas (deprivation categories 1+2) did not report their smoking (39%) compared with women in the most deprived areas (22% in deprivation categories 4+5), but, because smoking was far more common in the most deprived areas (706 (40%) in deprived areas compared with 142 (14%) in affluent areas), projected figures for Scotland suggest that twice as many women in the most deprived areas are undetected (n=1196) than in the least deprived areas (n=642). CONCLUSION: Reliance on self reporting to identify pregnant smokers significantly underestimates the number of pregnant smokers in Scotland and results in a failure to detect over 2400 smokers each year who are therefore not offered smoking cessation services.

First-trimester contingent screening for Down syndrome can reduce the number of nuchal translucency measurements required.

BACKGROUND: To assess the performance of a two-stage screening protocol for Down syndrome based on initial serum marker analysis for all women and nuchal translucency (NT) measurement only in women with intermediate risks. METHODS: Biochemical marker and NT data in 10 189 women who had had combined ultrasound and biochemical (CUB) screening, were re-analysed using the contingent model. A risk was calculated from the results of the pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) and free beta human chorionic gonadotrophin (FbetahCG) measurements and maternal age. For risks between 1 in 42 and 1 in 1000, the likelihood ratio from the NT measurement was incorporated and assessed against a final cut-off risk of 1 in 250. RESULTS: A total of 3.1% unaffected and 61.4% Down syndrome pregnancies had risks>or=1:42. In women with risks<1 in 42 and >1 in 1000 (29%), a further 2.7% unaffected pregnancies and 27.3% Down syndrome pregnancies had risks above 1 in 250 when NT was incorporated. Overall detection rate was 88.6%, and false positive rate 5.8% (compared with 90.9% and 6.4% for CUB screening). NT measurements were required in 29% of women. CONCLUSIONS: Within first-trimester, contingent screening provides good sensitivity and specificity with the potential for considerable saving in ultrasound resources.

Filaggrin mutations are genetic modifying factors exacerbating X-linked ichthyosis.

Mutations inactivating the STS gene cause X-linked ichthyosis (XLI), whereas null mutations in the FLG gene cause ichthyosis vulgaris. Two brothers presented with XLI. One had a typical fine scaling, and the other was much more severely affected. Both patients carried STS missense mutation T165I. Furthermore, the more severely affected patient also carried heterozygous FLG mutation R501X, which was absent from his mildly affected brother. These data suggest that disrupting epidermal differentiation via different pathways can increase phenotypic severity. Owing to the high population frequency of FLG mutations, filaggrin is a possible genetic modifier in other genodermatoses.

Circulating angiogenic factors in early pregnancy and the risk of preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, spontaneous preterm birth, and stillbirth.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the relationship between maternal serum levels of placental growth factor (PlGF) and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) in early pregnancy with the risk of subsequent adverse outcome. METHODS: A nested, case-control study was performed within a prospective cohort study of Down syndrome screening. Maternal serum levels of sFlt-1 and PlGF at 10-14 weeks of gestation were compared between 939 women with complicated pregnancies and 937 controls. Associations were quantified as the odds ratio for a one decile increase in the corrected level of the analyte. RESULTS: Higher levels of sFlt-1 were not associated with the risk of preeclampsia but were associated with a reduced risk of delivery of a small for gestational age infant (odds ratio [OR] 0.92, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.88-0.96), extreme (24-32 weeks) spontaneous preterm birth (OR 0.90, 95% CI 0.83-0.99), moderate (33-36 weeks) spontaneous preterm birth (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.88-0.98), and stillbirth associated with abruption or growth restriction (OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.61-0.95). Higher levels of PlGF were associated with a reduced risk of preeclampsia (OR 0.95, 95% CI 0.90-0.99) and delivery of a small for gestational age infant (OR 0.95, 95% CI 0.91-0.99). Associations were minimally affected by adjustment for maternal characteristics. CONCLUSION: Higher early pregnancy levels of sFlt-1 and PlGF were associated with a decreased risk of adverse perinatal outcome.

Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A and alpha-fetoprotein and prediction of adverse perinatal outcome.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the association between pregnancy associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and adverse perinatal outcome. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter prospective cohort study of 8,483 women attending for prenatal care in southern Scotland between 1998 and 2000. The risk of delivering a small for gestational age infant, delivering preterm, and stillbirth were related to maternal serum levels of PAPP-A and AFP. RESULTS: Women with a low PAPP-A were not more likely to have elevated levels of AFP. Compared with women with a normal PAPP-A and a normal AFP, the odds ratio for delivering a small for gestational age infant for women with a high AFP was 0.9 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.5-1.6), for women with a low PAPP-A was 2.8 (95% CI 2.0-4.0), and for women with both a high AFP and a low PAPP-A was 8.5 (95% CI 3.6-20.0). The odds ratio for delivering preterm for women with a high AFP was 1.8 (95% CI 1.3-2.7), for women with a low PAPP-A was 1.9 (95% CI 1.3-2.7), and for women with both a low PAPP-A and a high AFP was 9.9 (95% CI 4.4-22.0). These interactions were statistically significant for both outcomes (P = .03 and .04, respectively). There was a nonsignificant trend toward a similar interaction in relation to stillbirth risk. Of the women with the combination of a low PAPP-A and high AFP, 32.1% (95% CI 15.9-52.4) delivered a low birth weight infant. CONCLUSION: Low maternal serum levels of PAPP-A between 10 and 14 weeks and high levels of AFP between 15 and 21 weeks gestation are synergistically associated with adverse perinatal outcome. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II-2.

First-trimester placentation and the risk of antepartum stillbirth.

CONTEXT: Preterm birth and low birth weight are determined, at least in part, during the first trimester of pregnancy. However, it is unknown whether the risk of stillbirth is also determined during the first trimester. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the risk of antepartum stillbirth varies in relation to circulating markers of placental function measured during the first trimester of pregnancy. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Multicenter, prospective cohort study (conducted in Scotland from 1998 through 2000) of 7934 women who had singleton births at or after 24 weeks' gestation, who had blood taken during the first 10 weeks after conception, and who were entered into national registries of births and perinatal deaths. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Antepartum stillbirths and stillbirths due to specific causes. RESULTS: There were 8 stillbirths among the 400 women with levels of pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) in the lowest fifth percentile compared with 17 among the remaining 7534 women (incidence rate per 10,000 women per week of gestation: 13.4 vs 1.4, respectively; hazard ratio [HR], 9.2 [95% confidence interval [CI], 4.0-21.4]; P<.001). When analyzed by cause of stillbirth, low level of PAPP-A was strongly associated with stillbirth due to placental dysfunction, defined as abruption or unexplained stillbirth associated with growth restriction (incidence rate: 11.7 vs 0.3, respectively; HR, 46.0 [95% CI, 11.9-178.0]; P<.001), but was not associated with other causes of stillbirth (incidence rate: 1.7 vs 1.1, respectively; HR, 1.4 [95% CI, 0.2-10.6]; P = .75). There was no relationship between having a low level of PAPP-A and maternal age, ethnicity, parity, height, body mass index, race, or marital status. Adjustment for maternal factors did not attenuate the strength of associations observed. There was no association between maternal circulating levels of the free beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin and stillbirth risk. CONCLUSION: The risk of stillbirth in late pregnancy may be determined by placental function in the first 10 weeks after conception.

The acute effects of heavy loads on jump squat performance: an evaluation of the complex and contrast methods of power development.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine power performance in jump squats when using the complex and contrast training methods. Eleven (n = 11) women participated in a familiarization session and in three randomly ordered testing sessions. One session involved completing sets of power exercises (jump squats) before sets of half squats (traditional method). The second session involved sets of half squats before sets of jump squats (complex method). A third session involved the alternation of sets of half squats and jump squats (contrast method). No significant difference in jump squat performance between each of the training methods was found. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the first set of each session, with the complex method having a significantly lower peak power. Further, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in performance changes between the higher and lower strength groups, with the higher strength group having a greater improvement in performance using the contrast training method compared with the traditional method. It was concluded that contrast training is advantageous for increasing power output but only for athletes with relatively high strength levels.

Combined ultrasound and biochemical screening for Down's syndrome in the first trimester: a Scottish multicentre study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of ultrasound measurements of fetal nuchal translucency (NT) obtained in a routine antenatal clinic setting in combination with appropriate biochemical markers as a first trimester screening test for Down's Syndrome. DESIGN: Multicentre observational study. SETTING: Fifteen Scottish maternity units. POPULATION: Pregnant women (n = 17,229) attending routine antenatal clinics at 10-14 weeks of gestation. METHODS: NT measurements were attempted in all women along with the measurement of maternal serum free beta human chorionic gonadotrophin (F beta hCG) and pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A). All results were converted to multiples of the appropriate gestational median (MoM) and using a statistical model the risk of an affected pregnancy was derived. No results were given to participating women but all were offered routine second trimester biochemical screening. All cases of Down's Syndrome within the study group were ascertained and the detection rate for each marker was estimated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Success rate of obtaining NT measurements and overall effectiveness of ultrasound and biochemical markers individually and in combination for the detection of Down's Syndrome pregnancies. RESULTS: NT measurements were obtained in 72.9% of women and blood samples in 98.4%. Forty-five cases of Down's Syndrome were ascertained (2.6/1,000). NT measurements were obtained in 37 cases (median NT 1.65 MoM), blood samples in 42 cases and both NT and blood in 34 cases. In combination with the a priori maternal age risk, observed detection rates at a 5% false positive rate were 20/37 (54%) for NT, 23/42 (55%) for F beta hCG and PAPP-A and 28/34 (82%) for a combination of NT, F beta hCG and PAPP-A using a cutoff risk of 1:250. The effect of failing to obtain NT measurements in all cases reduces the overall detection rate to 62% (i.e. 28/45) if the entire series of affected pregnancies within the study group is considered. CONCLUSIONS: NT in combination with appropriate serum markers has the potential to detect over 80% of Down's Syndrome fetuses in early pregnancy. However, NT measurement is highly operator-dependent. It requires training, external quality control and adequate time to allow accurate measurement, otherwise suboptimal performance will result.

Early pregnancy levels of pregnancy-associated plasma protein a and the risk of intrauterine growth restriction, premature birth, preeclampsia, and stillbirth.

The risk of adverse perinatal outcome among 8839 women recruited to a multicenter, prospective cohort study was related to maternal circulating concentrations of trophoblast-derived proteins at 8-14 wk gestation. Women with a pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) in the lowest fifth percentile at 8-14 wk gestation had an increased risk of intrauterine growth restriction [adjusted odds ratio, 2.9; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.0-4.1], extremely premature delivery (adjusted odds ratio, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.6-5.5), moderately premature delivery (adjusted odds ratio, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.7-3.5), preeclampsia (adjusted odds ratio, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.6-3.3), and stillbirth (adjusted odds ratio, 3.6; 95% CI, 1.2-11.0). The strengths of the associations were similar when the test was performed before 13 wk gestation or between 13 and 14 wk gestation. In contrast, levels of free beta-human CG, another circulating protein synthesized by the syncytiotrophoblast, were not predictive of later outcome in multivariate analysis. PAPP-A has been identified as a protease specific for IGF binding proteins. We conclude that control of the IGF system in the first and early second trimester trophoblast may have a key role in determining subsequent pregnancy outcome.